Rainboe Universe

[Jaga]

I thought that somebody posted it for prima-aprilis, but this is not a case...

Big Bang theory could be debunked by Large Hadron Collider
Scientists at Cern could prove the controversial theory of ‘rainbow gravity’ which suggests that the universe stretches back into time infinitely, with no Big Bang

www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/large-hadron-collider/11489442/Big-Bang-theory-could-be-debunked-by-Large-Hadron-Collider.html



The detection of miniature black holes by the Large Hadron Collider could prove the existence of parallel universes and show that the Big Bang did not happen, scientists believe.
The particle accelerator, which will be restarted this week, has already found the Higgs boson – the God Particle – which is thought to give mass to other particles.
Now scientists at Cern in Switzerland believe they might find miniature black holes which would reveal the existence of a parallel universe.
And if the holes are found at a certain energy, it could prove the controversial theory of ‘rainbow gravity’ which suggests that the universe stretches back into time infinitely with no singular point where it started, and no Big Bang.
The theory was postulated to reconcile Einstein’s theory of general relativity – which deals with very large objects, and quantum mechanics – which looks at the tiniest building blocks of the universe. It takes its name from a suggestion that gravity's effect on the cosmos is felt differently by varying wavelengths of light.
The huge amounts of energy needed to make ‘rainbow gravity’ would mean that the early universe was very different. One result would be that if you retrace time backward, the universe gets denser, approaching an infinite density but never quite reaching it.
The effect of rainbow gravity is small for objects like the Earth but it is significant and measurable for black holes. It could be detected by the Large Hadron Collider if it picks up or creates black holes within the accelerator.
“We have calculated the energy at which we expect to detect these mini black holes in gravity's rainbow . If we do detect mini black holes at this energy, then we will know that both gravity's rainbow and extra dimensions are correct, Dr Mir Faizal told Phys.org.
• Did the Big Bang create a parallel universe where time goes backwards?
• Large Hadron Collider to launch again in dark matter quest
• The sound of science: Higgs boson data turned into music at CERN
• Pictures reveal bigger and better Large Hadron Collider
The second run of the LHC will begin this week and the beams are expected to go full circle on Wednesday for the first time since the 27km accelerator was shut down in early 2013 for an upgrade.
When it is fired up it will smash protons together at nearly double the energy that was used to find the Higgs boson.
Rolf Heuer, Director General of CERN, said the switch-on would create ‘a new era for physics’ which could also shed light on dark matter, dark energy and super-symmetry.
“I want to see the first light in the dark universe. If that happens, then nature is kind to me.”
Scientists believe they could find the first proof of alternative realities that exist outside out own universe.

[kaima]

Another theory contrary to the Big Bang:


No Big Bang? Quantum equation predicts universe has no beginning
by Lisa Zyga , Phys.org
FEBRUARY 9, 2015

phys.org/news/2015-02-big-quantum-equation-universe.html


(Phys.org) —The universe may have existed forever, according to a new model that applies quantum correction terms to complement Einstein's theory of general relativity. The model may also account for dark matter and dark energy, resolving multiple problems at once.

The widely accepted age of the universe, as estimated by general relativity, is 13.8 billion years. In the beginning, everything in existence is thought to have occupied a single infinitely dense point, or singularity. Only after this point began to expand in a "Big Bang" did the universe officially begin.



**This is an artist's concept of the metric expansion of space, where space (including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe) is represented at each time by the circular sections. Note on the left the dramatic expansion (not to scale) occurring in the inflationary epoch, and at the center the expansion acceleration. The scheme is decorated with WMAP images on the left and with the representation of stars at the appropriate level of development. Credit: NASA**

Although the Big Bang singularity arises directly and unavoidably from the mathematics of general relativity, some scientists see it as problematic because the math can explain only what happened immediately after—not at or before—the singularity.

"The Big Bang singularity is the most serious problem of general relativity because the laws of physics appear to break down there," Ahmed Farag Ali at Benha University and the Zewail City of Science and Technology, both in Egypt, told Phys.org.

Ali and coauthor Saurya Das at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada, have shown in a paper published in Physics Letters B that the Big Bang singularity can be resolved by their new model in which the universe has no beginning and no end.

Old ideas revisited

The physicists emphasize that their quantum correction terms are not applied ad hoc in an attempt to specifically eliminate the Big Bang singularity. Their work is based on ideas by the theoretical physicist David Bohm, who is also known for his contributions to the philosophy of physics. Starting in the 1950s, Bohm explored replacing classical geodesics (the shortest path between two points on a curved surface) with quantum trajectories.

In their paper, Ali and Das applied these Bohmian trajectories to an equation developed in the 1950s by physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri at Presidency University in Kolkata, India. Raychaudhuri was also Das's teacher when he was an undergraduate student of that institution in the '90s.

Using the quantum-corrected Raychaudhuri equation, Ali and Das derived quantum-corrected Friedmann equations, which describe the expansion and evolution of universe (including the Big Bang) within the context of general relativity. Although it's not a true theory of quantum gravity, the model does contain elements from both quantum theory and general relativity. Ali and Das also expect their results to hold even if and when a full theory of quantum gravity is formulated.

No singularities nor dark stuff

In addition to not predicting a Big Bang singularity, the new model does not predict a "big crunch" singularity, either. In general relativity, one possible fate of the universe is that it starts to shrink until it collapses in on itself in a big crunch and becomes an infinitely dense point once again.

Ali and Das explain in their paper that their model avoids singularities because of a key difference between classical geodesics and Bohmian trajectories. Classical geodesics eventually cross each other, and the points at which they converge are singularities. In contrast, Bohmian trajectories never cross each other, so singularities do not appear in the equations.

In cosmological terms, the scientists explain that the quantum corrections can be thought of as a cosmological constant term (without the need for dark energy) and a radiation term. These terms keep the universe at a finite size, and therefore give it an infinite age. The terms also make predictions that agree closely with current observations of the cosmological constant and density of the universe.

New gravity particle

In physical terms, the model describes the universe as being filled with a quantum fluid. The scientists propose that this fluid might be composed of gravitons—hypothetical massless particles that mediate the force of gravity. If they exist, gravitons are thought to play a key role in a theory of quantum gravity.

In a related paper, Das and another collaborator, Rajat Bhaduri of McMaster University, Canada, have lent further credence to this model. They show that gravitons can form a Bose-Einstein condensate (named after Einstein and another Indian physicist, Satyendranath Bose) at temperatures that were present in the universe at all epochs.

Motivated by the model's potential to resolve the Big Bang singularity and account for dark matter and dark energy, the physicists plan to analyze their model more rigorously in the future. Their future work includes redoing their study while taking into account small inhomogeneous and anisotropic perturbations, but they do not expect small perturbations to significantly affect the results.

phys.org/news/2015-02-big-quantum-equation-universe.html


"It is satisfying to note that such straightforward corrections can potentially resolve so many issues at once," Das said.

[kaima]

Tied in with the Big Bang and all of the high pressures and temperatures needed to overcome sub-atomic forces and create heavy elements from light elements, here is a fine graphic summary of how each of the elements was created:

[kaima]

Sept 21, 2021 19:55:17 GMT -7 kaima said:

Tied in with the Big Bang and all of the high pressures and temperatures needed to overcome sub-atomic forces and create heavy elements from light elements, here is a fine graphic summary of how each of the elements was created:

MISCVisualizing the Origin of Elements
Published 2 years ago on June 13, 2019

By Jenna Ross


Visualizing the Origin of Elements www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-the-origin-of-elements/

Visualizing the Origin of Elements
Most of us are familiar with the periodic table of elements from high school chemistry. We learned about atoms, and how elements combine to form chemical compounds. But perhaps a lesser-known aspect is where these elements actually come from.

Today’s periodic table showing the origin of elements comes to us from Reddit user u/only_home, inspired by an earlier version created by astronomer Jennifer Johnson. It should be noted that elements with multiple sources are shaded proportionally to reflect the amount of said element produced from each source.

Let’s dive into the eight origin stories in more detail.

The Big Bang
The universe began as a hot, dense region of radiant energy about 14 billion years ago. It cooled and expanded immediately after formation, creating the lightest and most plentiful elements: hydrogen and helium. This process also created trace amounts of lithium.

Low Mass Stars



At the beginning of their lives, all stars create energy by fusing hydrogen atoms to form helium. Once the hydrogen is depleted, stars fuse helium into carbon and expand to become red giants.

From this point on, the journey of a low and a high mass star differs. Low mass stars reach a temperature of roughly one million kelvin and continue to heat up. Outer layers of helium and hydrogen expand around the carbon core until they can no longer be contained by gravity. These gas layers, known as a planetary nebula, are ejected into space. It is thought that a low mass star’s death creates many heavy elements such as lead.

Exploding White Dwarfs
In the wake of this planetary nebula expulsion, a carbon core known as a “white dwarf” remains with a temperature of about 100,000 kelvin. In many cases, a white dwarf will simply fade away.

Sometimes, however, white dwarfs gain enough mass from a nearby companion star to become unstable and explode in a Type 1a supernova. This explosion likely creates heavier elements such as iron, nickel, and manganese.

Exploding Massive Stars



Massive stars evolve faster and generate much more heat. In addition to forming carbon, they also create layers of oxygen, nitrogen, and iron. When the core contains only iron, which is stable and compact, fusion ceases and gravitational collapse occurs. The star reaches a temperature of over several billion kelvin—resulting in a supernova explosion. Astronomers speculate that a variety of elements, including arsenic and rubidium, are formed during such explosions.

Exploding Neutron Stars
When a supernova occurs, the star’s core collapses, crushing protons and neutrons together into neutrons. If the mass of a collapsing star is low enough—about four to eight times that of the sun—a neutron star is formed. In 2017, it was discovered that when these dense neutron stars collide, they create heavier elements such as gold and platinum.

Cosmic Ray Spallation
The shockwaves from supernova explosions send cosmic rays, or high energy atoms/subatomic particles, flying through space. When these cosmic rays hit another atom at nearly the speed of light, they break apart and form a new element. The elements of lithium, beryllium, and boron are products of this process.

Nuclear Decay
Supernova explosions also create very heavy elements with unstable nuclei. Over time, these nuclei eject a neutron or proton, or a neutron decays into a proton and electron. This process is known as radioactive decay and often creates lighter, more stable elements such as radium and francium.

Not Naturally Occurring
There are currently 26 elements on the periodic table that are not naturally occurring; instead, these are all created synthetically in a laboratory using nuclear reactors and particle accelerators. For example, plutonium can be created when fast-moving neutrons collide with a common uranium isotope in a nuclear reactor.

Discoveries Yet to be Made
There is still some uncertainty as to where elements with a middle-range atomic number—neither heavy nor light—come from. As scientific breakthroughs emerge, we will continue to learn more about the elements that make up the mass of our solar system.

www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-the-origin-of-elements/

[karl]

Jaga and kai

An interesting subject you both have presented very well and with this my self do hold no argument.

Many years very much past, a black man {South African} as a young man fresh out of the academy. We used to meet in amongst the Cherry blossom trees and eat our respective lunch. The fact of the matter, I was afraid of him for I knew extremely little about black people and he was no exception. We though would talk about what ever, he taught me some very long lasting lessons of life. These were not good times for some black people, but this was not apparent to him in my view of that time. Once when as a brash young man, I made some comments that rankled him, he then quitely replied," young white man, you and your kind can and will shoot your guns in to the sky,,but you will never hit the sky in as well as with your power, you will never hold up your hand and stop the wind". Needless to say, I was taken back to rethink who I am and where I stand in this world. We become very good friends after that and he had earnt my full respect..

The above is a personal story, but one that brings out our weaknesses, and that is we always question what we do not know, but do we understand the answers?

For although we are the masters of our world, but what do we know of it?

For in many ways, we have not progressed any further then of those that stood before us so many thousands of years long past and gone. For we do not have the manner of understanding of time, for this is our invention, for perhaps there is no such thing as time or a beginning or end of what we call space {for every thing must have a name} for if there is no time, then there is no beginning or end of space. We not have the facility of understanding endless time and space, that holds uncountable universes.

The following is a professional description, a bit lengthy, but perhaps better phrased:

Time and the Big Bang

We can model quite accurately the evolution of the universe since the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago
The general view of physicists is that time started at a specific point about 13.8 billion years ago with the Big Bang, when the entire universe suddenly expanded out of an infinitely hot, infinitely dense singularity, a point where the laws of physics as we understand them simply break down. This can be considered the “birth” of the universe, and the beginning of time as we know it. Before the Big Bang, there just was no space or time, and you cannot go further back in time than the Big Bang, in much the same way as you cannot go any further north than the North Pole.

As theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking notes in his 1988 book A Brief History of Time, even if time did not begin with the Big Bang, and there was another time frame before it, no information is available to us from that earlier time-frame, and any events that occurred then would have no effect on our present time-frame. Any putative events from before the Big Bang can therefore be considered effectively meaningless (or at least the province of philosophical speculation, not physics).

Events after the Big Bang
The universe is expanding, and all the galaxies are moving further and further away from each other. In fact, we now know that this expansion is accelerating faster and faster (largely as a result of the mysterious dark energy that pervades the universe). If we were to play the movie of this expansion in reverse, we would see the universe become smaller and small as we go back in time, until ultimately the matter and energy of the whole universe is concentrated into a microscopic point some 13.8 billion years ago.

We can model this process remarkably closely (at least until the very early nanoseconds or less), and physicists have been able to piece together the major events in the evolution of universe, beginning with the tiniest fractions of a second after the Big Bang:

Planck Epoch (the first 5.39 x 10-44 seconds after the Big Bang) – events (if any) occurring within this time must necessarily remain pure speculation.
Grand Unification Epoch (10-43 to 10-36 seconds) – the force of gravity separates from the other fundamental forces, and the first elementary particles are created.
Inflationary Epoch (10-36 to 10-32 seconds) – the universe undergoes an extremely rapid exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation, and any existing particles become very thinly distributed.
Electroweak Epoch (10-36 to 10-12 seconds) – the strong nuclear force separates from the other two forces (electromagnetism and gravity), and particle interactions create large numbers of exotic particles, including W and Z bosons and Higgs bosons.
Quark Epoch (10-12 to 10-6 seconds) – the four fundamental forces assume their present forms, and quarks, electrons and neutrinos form in large numbers as the universe cools off to below 10 quadrillion degrees (although most quarks and antiquarks annihilate each other upon contact, a surplus of quarks survives, which will ultimately combine to form matter).
Hadron Epoch (10-6 seconds to 1 second) – the universe cools to about a trillion degrees, allowing quarks to combine to form hadrons like protons and neutrons, and electrons colliding with protons fuse to form neutrons and give off massless neutrinos.

Lepton Epoch (1 to 10 seconds) – most (but not all) hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other, and leptons such as electrons and positrons dominate the mass of the universe.
Nucleosynthesis (3 minutes to 20 minutes) – the temperature of the universe falls to about a billion degrees, so that atomic nuclei can begin to form as protons and neutrons fuse to form the nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen, helium and lithium.
Photon Epoch (10 seconds to about 240,000 years) – the universe is filled with plasma, a hot opaque soup of atomic nuclei and electrons, and the energy of the universe is dominated by photons, which continue to interact frequently with the charged protons, electrons and nuclei.
Recombination/Decoupling (about 240,000 to 300,000 years) – the temperature of the universe falls to around 3,000 degrees, and ionized hydrogen and helium atoms capture electrons, neutralizing their electric charge and binding them within atoms; the universe finally becomes transparent to light, making this the earliest epoch potentially observable today.

Dark Age or Era (about 300,000 to 150 million years) – the universe is literally dark, with no stars having formed to give off light; only very diffuse matter remains, and all activity tails off dramatically, with the universe dominated by mysterious “dark matter”.
Reionization Epoch (about 150 million to about 1 billion years) – the first quasars form from gravitational collapse, and their intense radiation reionizes the surrounding universe, which goes from being neutral back to being composed of ionized plasma
Star and Galaxy Formation (300 – 500 million years onwards) – small, dense clouds of cosmic gas start to collapse under their own gravity, until they trigger nuclear fusion reactions between hydrogen atoms and create the very first stars, which gradually cluster into galaxies.
Solar System Formation (8.5 – 9 billion years after the Big Bang) – our Sun, a late-generation star incorporating the debris from generations of earlier stars, and the Solar System around it, form roughly 4.5 to 5 billion years ago.

The Ultimate Fate of the Universe

We can also model, with reasonable confidence, the ultimate fate of the Universe
Our Sun is gradually getting larger, hotter and brighter, and the Earth will probably become uninhabitable within about a billion years from now. In about 5 billion years, our Sun is expected to turn into a red giant star, after which it will gradually shrink and cool into a small, dense white dwarf star, and ultimately into a dark, dead black dwarf star (in about 10 billion years from now). The rest of the universe, though, will continue its expansion and evolution.

There are several possible scenarios in physics for the ultimate fate of the universe, depending on the universe’s overall shape or geometry (i.e. whether it is flat, open or closed), on how much dark energy it contains (dark energy is an invisible, hypothetical form of energy with repulsive anti-gravity that permeates all of space, and that may explain recent observations that the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerating rate), and on the so-called “equation of state” (which essentially determines how the density of the dark energy responds to the expansion of the universe). Further advances in fundamental physics may be required before we can make predictions about the future of the universe with any level of certainty, but we can still look at the possibilities.

Without the repulsive effect of dark energy, the effects of gravity will eventually stop the expansion of the universe and it will start to contract until all the matter in the universe collapses to a final singularity, a mirror image of the Big Bang known as the “Big Crunch”. This also offers intriguing possibilities of an oscillating or cyclic universe, or “Big Bounce”, where the Big Crunch is succeeded by the Big Bang of a new universe, and so on, potentially ad infinitum, corresponding to a cyclic view of time.

If the acceleration of the expansion of the universe caused by dark energy increases without limit, one hypothesis is that the dark energy could eventually becoming so strong that it completely overwhelms the effects of the gravitational, electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces. This would result in galaxies, stars and eventually even atoms themselves being literally torn apart, sometimes referred to as the “Big Rip”, with the universe as we know it ending dramatically in an unusual kind of gravitational singularity within the relatively short time horizon of just 35 – 50 billion years. Time under this model would therefore be finite, rather than cyclic or infinite, in nature.

However, the most likely scenario, given our current knowledge of the constantly increasing effects of dark energy, is that the universe will continue expanding forever at an exponentially accelerating rate, ultimately turning space into an almost perfect vacuum as the remaining matter-energy becomes more and more diluted, a scenario sometimes referred to as “Heat Death” or the “Big Freeze“ or the “Big Chill”. Over a time scale of 1014 (a hundred trillion) years or more, the universe would reach a state of maximum entropy and thermal equilibrium at a temperature of very close to absolute zero, where it simply becomes too cold to sustain life or motion of any kind, and all that would remain are burned-out stars, cold dead planets and black holes. Eventually, after an almost unimaginable 10100 (a googol) years, even the black holes will have evaporated away, leaving nothing but random isolated particles floating in emptiness, with little or no prospect of ever interacting with other particles. The implication of this model is that, although time was finite in the past, it will be potentially infinite in the future, although in a scenario like this, where change is practically impossible, the very concept of time becomes effectively meaningless.

The problem with an infinite, eternal universe is that even the most unlikely events will eventually occur (and not only occur, but occur an infinite number of times). In such a scenario, every event would theoretically be equally likely to happen, which effectively undermines the basis for all probabilistic predictions of local experiments. A solution to this problem, according to physicist Raphael Bousso and his collaborators, is to conclude that time WILL eventually end, and he has set about calculating the probability of how and when time will end given five different cut-off measures. Two of these scenarios resulted in time having a 50% chance of ending within 3.7 billion years; in two other scenarios, time has a 50% chance of ending within 3.3 billion years; in the fifth (much less likely) scenario, the time scale is very short and time is overwhelmingly likely to end within the next second. In this hypothetical situation, the end of time is envisioned as similar to an outside observer’s description of a matter system falling into a black hole: everything would gradually slow down and eventually just stop.

Multiverse
An alternative model of the universe sees it as just one of a potentially infinite number of other parallel universes in an overall multiverse (a word actually coined as long ago as 1895 by the American philosopher and psychologist William James). Such a scenario is actually thrown up by many different physical theories, including quantum mechanics, string theory, brane theory, etc, and is increasingly being seen as a real possibility and as a solution to many of the inconsistencies and inexplicabilities in our current theories. It has also been proposed as an explanation for how our universe appears to be so fine-tuned for life as we know it, by calling on the anthropic principle (the idea that the universe is only as it is because we are here to observe this particular version of it).

Parallel universes may physically exist within the same dimensional space as our own universe, but beyond our cosmological horizon; they may exist within black holes; they may exist in other inaccessible dimensions; they may exist very close to our own, or even locked inside or superimposed on it in other dimensions. Some of these parallel universes may even have completely different physical constants and physical laws to ours. By definition, though, we can only ever experience our own universe, and just do not have – and never will have – the ability to see or interact with (or, for that matter, prove the existence of) the rest of the multiverse, and so it remains necessarily hypothetical.

This kind of universe of course also has implications for time, and it may be that what see perceive as time and the arrow of time is only a localized part of an overall concept of time.

Karl